European Court of Human Rights

atomic number 63an Court of Human RightsIntroductionThe purpose of litigation at the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR), is to examine alleged violations and ensure that States Parties comply with their obligations under the Convention, providing individual(a) applicants with effective remedies and just satisfaction under Articles 13 and 41 of the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR). The wider objective is to defend and embed locally the three CoE foundation st atomic number 53s liberal pluralist democracy, human rights and the rule of equity to effect geomorphological and institutional change and create a common democratic and legal area by dint ofout the whole of the continent. Yet comprised of 47 member submits and 811 million citizens, the CoE inhabits a fundamentally different territorial scope to that in May 1949. Originally a social and ideological counter ramify to NATO, it has undergone a central shift in its core modus operandi from an interstate process of protecting the democratic identity of Member States through the medium of human rights to its emerging front line role as an arbiter of liberal human rights through the medium of individual petition. Considerable problems that threaten to undermine what has been achieved over the fifty years during which the Convention has operated lead one to ask whether there is any point taking such aspects at all.This brief essay is split in two sections. Section one analyses the multilateral problem outlined deep down PACE Resolution 1226 (2000) the inadequate clarity and casuistical nature of Court judgements, characterised by doctrinal uncertainty in the adjustment of appreciation the systemic non-implementation of judgments and failure to employ necessary reforms that would avoid further violations, with a case study of the Russian league and a critique of the deficient rigour and failure of the Committee of government ministers (CoM) to exert enough pressure when supervising the execution of judgments.Section two, explores the central debate between individual and primitive rightness and the potential impact Protocol 14 may fox on the asphyxiating6 Court and CoM. Finally I assess the accomplishments of Strasbourg litigation before returning positively to our initial question with a passionate case for individual petition against the backdrop of a tide of human rights ab economic consumption in post-communist accession Europe the benefit of the Interlaken proposals and preservation of the Human Rights Act 1998.Section One ProblemsTheoretical Fault Lines An Unprincipled MarginThe extent to which there is any point to Strasbourg litigation is determined in the offset printing instance by the extent to which the Court can effectively balance its role as a supra field of study juridical guarantor of liberal individualist human rights, within the CoE frame rick of upholding and deferring to the thread of pluralist democracy an intrinsically collective ideal . For McHarg, Strasbourg natural law is characterised by the absence of a abstract framework integrating a preferable rights model with a defensible conception of the public interest. Greer agrees, highlighting unresolved normative, institutional, and adjudicative questions, and the failure of the Court to stand a concrete body of jurisprudence and constitutional authority. The result formulaic, thin decisions and un-ordered interpretive principles, at best devaluing Convention rights and at worst denying them.This dichotomy is contend out through the margin of appreciation doctrine the latitude given to States Parties based on their intermit position with the facts on the ground. ECHR protections are not absolute, except relative they are subject to exceptions permitting infringement of the fundamental right or freedom, specifically defined within paragraph two of Articles 8-11 and under Article 15 (A15) can be erased altogether to the extent strictly required by the exigenci es of the situation. These express definitional restrictions remind us of Bentham this, we see, is saying nothing it leaves the law just as free and unfettered as it found it. Strict juridical interpretation and objectivity are critical to the defence of Convention rights in the context of these exceptions.The flexibility of the margin is for Waldock advantageous to the evolutive nature of Strasbourg Jurisprudence, and for Dr Arai-Takahashi value pluralism being the fundamental prerequisite and virtue of a liberal democratic society, a set of standardised rules would devalue regional legitimacy and richness of cultural values and traditions among member states. The CoE is clear in its aim to promote awareness and encourage the development of Europes cultural identity and diversity.That Convention rights are relative is a moot point for realist theorists, since States Parties would never have been willing to be bound by the Convention in the first place without safeguarding their d emocratic sovereignty.Yet McHarg notes the paradox in a legal scheme which is supposed to protect the individual against the collective, sanctioning limitations to rights on collective grounds. How off the beaten track(predicate) in practice does the ECtHR go towards fulfilling the supervisory function it refers to in Handyside v UK (1976)? To what extent does Osts strayion that there is never an unchallengeable margin hold consecutive? McHarg talks of doctrinal uncertainty while Jones points out that even the Courts president has acknowledged the justification to some extent of criticism of the doctrines lack of precision and use without principled standards. Fiercer critics lambast the abdication of the Courts enforcement responsibility. Dembour questions if Convention rights are so full of contradictions that they are use slight?It is intrinsic to the dichotomy between international individual rights protections and the national collective interest that the margin of appreciat ion occupies a middle position between subjectivity and objectivity between a burden of proof fearlessly on the government on one hand and on the other of wide deference to it. In Lawless v. Ireland (1961), Waldock asserteda Governments discharge of responsibilities is a problem of appreciating complex factors and balancing conflicting considerations of the public interest once the Court is satisfied that the appreciation is on the margin the interest the public itself has in effective Government and maintenance of order justifies and requires a decision in favour of the legality of the Governments appreciation Simpson saw this reflecting an implicit determination to back the authorities. Dembour and Jones single assessments of further A15 derogations demonstrate consistently deferential applications of the margin, and reluctance to objectively scrutinise the existence of an emergency or of the measures implemented to tackle it. In Greece v. United landed estate (1958), the Comm ission argued that the assessment whether or not a public danger threatening the life of the nation existed is a question of appreciation determining the hardship of the repressive measures employed, the UK government enjoyed a certain discretion. Such a position is clearly evident in Ireland v. United Kingdom (1978), confirmed in Brannigan v. McBride (1993), both concerning A15 derogations of Article 5 with regard to the detention of suspects in Ireland. Several problems arise from the rationale employed in these cases. Dembour draws our attention to the absence of a factually and theoretically strict compendium impossible to justify in human rights terms. Indeed, the inevitability of a wide margin in the context of A15 derogations, led Judge Martens to assert that there is no justification for leaving a wide margin because the Court, being the stopping point resort protector, is called upon to strictly scrutinise every derogation. Jones contends a state of emergency objectively determinable if a national government has evidence of such a situation, he asks why this is not capable of assessment by an international Court?Implementation A pessimistic view is well founded Strasbourg jurisprudence has demonstrated the capability of the Court to robustly uphold Convention rights from major shows of arbitrariness, ensuring a degree of judge for applicants and families, international attention, accountability in relation to serious violations, and domestic legislative change. Notwithstanding the significance of such supranational decisions, analysis of the pending caseload (some 116,800 cases in October 2009), reveals a Court facing unsustainable pressure from repetitive cases concerned with structural problems in civil, criminal and administrative proceedings serious pervasive human rights abuses and unacceptable delays in the implementation of judgements. Implementation remains the Achilles heel of the Convention system, A brief case study of Russia undersc ores the gravity of the situation.It is the irony of recital that the Russian Federation now occupies a key position in the very organisation established to provide European unity and security in the face of Soviet communism. Comprising 27.3% (31,850) of all pending applications at the ECtHR, the Medvedev Government faces protracted challenges in its attempts to develop civil and economic freedoms ending the legal nihilism that is badly hindering modern development. I write following the death in Butyrka prison of Sergei Magnitsky, an anti-corruption lawyer acting for HSBC / Hermitage Capital in the $230m tax fraud case. This case and the ongoing second Khordokovsky trial are emblematic of structural defects in the Russian criminal justice system and procuratura that have lead to the accusation and captivity of many innocent persons. Other important cases demonstrate the gravity of the situation, including Gusinskiy v Russia, Ilascu and Others v Moldova and Russia, the first six Chechen cases, Shamayev and 12 others v Russia and Georgia and Aleksanyan v Russia. Leutheusser-Schnarrenbergers recent PACE report on politically motivated abuses of the criminal justice system is a powerful indictment of the failure of the Russian Federation to entrench a meaningful institutional framework that engages with the rule of law. The report highlights a multi-layered problematic of political and hierarchical vectors of pressure on judges to secure convictions retrogressive legislative proposals that call into questions Putins implementation of jury trial the endemic failure to safeguard defence lawyers from coercion and realise a truly free-living objective procedure for their selection and quality serious investigative flaws and unremitting legal nihilism.The systemic pervasive abuse of human rights in Chechnya represents perhaps the close to serious Convention violations. It is here that PACE and the CoM face their most urgent challenges. Bowring draws our attention to the recent memorandum on the North Caucasus, exposing violations by security forces, including enforced disappearances, torture, extrajuridic executions and impunity for these violations of international law while Leach candidly outlines the scope and extent of the crisis the first Chechen cases demonstrate the real limitations of the individual rights mechanism of the European Court as a forum for resolving wide scale, systemic and serious human rights violations.In his recent put down to Birkbeck College, Leach vividly underscored the at odds(p) and lamentable and licitly unsatisfactory problem of non-disclosure (ND) of domestic case files, in spite of repeated requests made by the Court. 33 of the 37 Chechen judgments have been characterised by this problem, notably Basayeva and Others v. Russia and Bitayeva and X v. Russia and Isayeva, Yusopova and Bazayeva v. Russia. The Court in Bazorkina v. Russia pointed out that documents of the criminal investigation are fundamental to the establishment of the facts and their absence may prejudice the Courts seemly examination of the compliant both at the admissibility and merits stage. Chechnya aside, Leach identifies a further threefold problem of implementation vis--vis Russia, confirmed in Pourgourides 2008 CLAHR Report deficient judicial review over pre-trial detention, resulting in excessive periods of detention and overcrowding the Nadzor procedure supervisory review of final judicial decisions and the urgent complex problem of the non-enforcement of domestic judicial decisions against the stateIn the context of these problems, can there be any hope for optimism? Bowring draws our attention to the often ignored historical context which has characterised Russia as bulge of a long and complex relationship with human rights and with the rule of law and judicial independence, which are its essential underpinning. It is in this context he argues that the ECHR, rather than an extraneous implantis to a la rge extent a restoration of the reforms of the 1860s. Ghorkova contends current legal reforms and the creation of the rule of law and a civil society with the appropriate structures and mechanisms to protect human rights and fundamental freedoms as well as the participation in the activities of the Council of Europe, are wholly in line with Russian Interests.Behind Russias posturing is, agree to Bowring a serious engagement with international law its commitment in terms of diplomatic and financial resources is substantial and compliance with its obligations indeed, in 2007 the ECtHR heard 192 complaints against Russia. Russia won just 6 and paid in full the orders for compensation in every case. In addition, in a wider sense, Leach points out the pre-eminent position of the CoE vis--vis Russia in view of the inability of the United Nations effectively to sanction Russia over human rights abuses, and as a result of Russian suspicion about the motives and aims of the OSCE. Entrench ing the rule of law in Russia will be a slow process. However, the mechanisms for its success are at least in legislative terms visible. It is my contention that through the work of the CoE and ECtHR, the Russian Federation will make a true engagement with human rights. As we shall explore below, the right of individual petition is an essential part of this process. It is easy to dismiss the Court as having failed in its mission when confronted by the ongoing abuses of rights in Russia. Yet this depends on how one defines success.From Systemic Individual rightness to an Abstract Constitutional identityThe critical mass of applications lodged coupled with systemic non implementation of Court judgements has led Wildhaber to a paradoxical observation that the quantum leap in recognising the individual as a subject of international law, has reduced the capability of the ECtHR to ensure the safeguarding of the individual from violations of Convention rights. That the Courts well noted a sphyxiation is intrinsically think to the right of individual recourse is clear. De Vries April 2009 CLAHR Report lays bare the unsustainable increase in applications, principally in the wake of post-communist accession, underscoring the urgent need to tackle obviously inadmissible cases repetitive cases that concern established systemic defects and to concentrate on the most important cases.The inferences drawn from these stark figures have been decisive shaping proposals to ameliorate the crisis only moreover reveal the wider battle for the soul of the ECHR borne out of competing understandings of the Courts function. The crippling application rate is for Greer emblematic of the intrinsic failure of the CoE structure to systematically deliver individual justice intrinsic since individual recourse is a flawed paradigm.Foremost, the Convention system was, according to Greer, simply not designed as a conduit for the tip of individual human rights through the medium of individual p etition, but rather the protection of democratic identity through the medium of human rights. Its contemporary utility is thus encouraging European public organisational, legal and ideological parity though articulation of an abstract constitutional model member states should then apply. Greer goes on to cast doubt over the possibility of the ability of the Convention system to deliver systematic justice to every applicant, concluding that given this individual justice becomes arbitrary. Finally, he argues that where cases are adjudicated in favour of the applicant, they are often hollow victories marked by symbolic rather than instrumental awards of just satisfaction, but beyond that little else.Consequentially he argues the urgent need to that the cases the Court does select for adjudication represent the most serious Convention compliance problems in Europe, and that they are colonized with maximum authority and impact. Wildhaber agrees, the need for the Court to concentrate its efforts on decisions of principle However, for Sir Stephen Sedley, the proposal to introduce a discretion to refuse to entertain cases which are legally admissible is a counsel of despair to do this would be to abandon the Courts crucial role, which is not that of a Supreme Court, but that of a tribunal of last resort for citizens of non-compliant states. This, he argues may be attractive to judges but is less attractive to citizens of sates which persistently or systematically fail to observe the convention. And this is less attractive still in light of the concern that amendments to the admissibility criteria will restrict the right of individuals to seek redress at the European Court, without adequately tackling the problem of the increase number of Convention violations across Europe.Conclusion Why Bother?Camerons renewed pledge to repatriate the Human Rights Act (1998) (HRA) with a British bill of rights to better tailor, but also strengthen, the protection of our core rights may soon be a reality. DPP Kier Starmer has made an impassioned defence of the HRA and broad impact of Convention jurisprudence on the CPS the common law sometimes struggles with a coherent approach to human rights the Human Rights Act is an essential component of the framework within which everyones rights may be protected.The ECHR has shored up the right to a fair trial in the UK, the CPS underscoring the relationship between Article 6 and its work securing the forthrightness of trial proceedings in criminal proceedings. It was central to the development of PACE (1984), ensuring formality of interrogation and ending miscarriages of justice through uncorroborated evidence. Regina v Fulling (1987) demonstrates the efficiency of PACE safeguards against evidence collected under oppression, contrary to the ECHR the meaning of the term (oppression) reflects the wording of Article 3.Starmer underscores the positive obligation on the state to take comely steps to protect potential vict ims from a real and immediate risk to their lives from criminal activity. When they (victims) unfortunately acquire that status, they have the right to an effective investigation. These are rights that border from the Human Rights Act, not rights that conflict with it. Critically, they are now enforceable in court. Through the application of the ECHR, challenges may be made under Section 78 PACE as to the admissibility of the evidence obtained and victims have the right to challenge decisions not to prosecute, particularly where they can point to poor decision-making or inappropriate consideration of contrary factors in that process.The HRA is central to legal certainty and transparency, and development of a modern public prosecution service prosecuting firmly and fairly, in an open, transparent and independent means supporting victims and witnesses by enabling, encouraging and supporting their effective participation at all stages in the criminal justice process and a commitment to prize and protect the human rights of all those affected by our decisions, whether they be victims, witnesses, suspects or defendants.Klug demonstrates the tangible protection of freedom under the Human Rights Act in 16 important areas freedom of association private and family life freedom of expression and the media terrorism torture jurisdiction in Iraq protecting the right to life investigations into deaths sum asylum seekers disability mental health restraint of young people in secure training centres sexual orientation race and gender. A hardly a(prenominal) examples of Case law in these areas make a powerful case for Strasbourg litigation.A and others v UK (2009) held that the incarceration of suspected international terrorists under the Anti-Terrorism, Crime and security measure Act 2001 without charge or trial was disproportionate and discriminated on the ground of nationality or immigration status. In R (H) v Mental Health go over Tribunal, the rights of those det ained under the Mental Health Act (1983) were bolstered by the shifting burden of proof for continued detention onto the health authority. Prisoners rights have been enhanced, including the granting of voting rights in Goldberg and Others v. Minister of Prisons (1979) the freedom from censorship of correspondence, in Silver and Others v. UK (1980) and changes to cell policies following the racist murder of a prisoner in R (Amin) v SSHD (2003). R (Baiai) v SSHD (2008) was important ensuring the sacrosanct right to marry under Article 12 was free from discrimination on the grounds of immigration status.Leach, in his recent visit to Birkbeck College drew attention to the heart-rending fact finding missions in Anchora in the early 1990s, highlighting serious pervasive violations of the Kurdish minority in South east Turkey. The deplorable case of Aydin v. Turkey (2005) is emblematic of the effect of individual petition and its fundamental importance to the effective protection of the su bstantive rights and freedoms provided for in the Convention. It is perhaps through this significant programme of litigation, setting key standards in violations of Articles 2, 3 and 5, and delivering access to justice to those most vulnerable and marginalised members of society that the true point of litigation in Strasbourg is made.For those in the North Caucuses, 2009 has been a frightful year, symbolised by the death in Grozny in July of Natalia Estimirova, followed a month later by Zarema Sadulayeva and Alik Dzhabrailov. Through the delivery of constitutional justice those most vulnerable people whose voices so desperately need to be heard will be cut off from the most advanced(a) international system for protecting civil and political liberties. Barkhuysen and Emmerick contend that the Courts constitutional legitimacy and moral authority are derived through providing legal protection to individuals by breaking the State Partys sovereignty. This unique achievement, unprecedent ed in international must be defended. It is here that the point of Strasbourg litigation is to be found.

Discuss the challenges facing forensic scientists

Discuss the contends lining forensic scientistsGENETICS FOR IDENTIFICATION bear witnessDiscuss the challenges facing forensic scientists for deoxyribonucleic acid-based designation of the remains of the victims of war or other conflicts (both civilian and military personnel).Illustrate with a range of examples. Discuss the challenges facing forensic scientists for deoxyribonucleic acid-based designation of the remains of the victims of war or other conflicts (both civilian and military personnel). Illustrate with a range of examples.IntroductionThe remains of victims of war lots pose numerous challenges to forensic scientists enlisted to aid in the identification process using deoxyribonucleic acid analysis. Foremost, the remains of victims of war have frequently been buried for hanker periods of time, often over 50 years, and this kitty sweat degradation and contamination of desoxyribonucleic acid. This affects the quality and beat of extracted deoxyribonucleic acid , making it difficult to amplify and generate a hereditary profile. This concise report highlights the problems facing forensic scientists during the analysis of war remains and the methods use to overcome slightly of these issues.desoxyribonucleic acid techniquesThe DNA techniques which can be used in DNA identification of skeletal grind away include mitochondrial DNA analysis (mtDNA) autosomal Short Tandem Repeat (STR) and Y-STR analysis and mini-STR profiling. STRs, also know as microsatellites, be DNA repeat units between two and seven base pairs vast that can easily be amplified by Polymerase Chain reply (PCR). The number of repeat units varies considerably amongst mortals, hence why sensitive STR analysis is highly discriminative for identification, even in degraded DNA samples (Butler et al., 2012). Fifteen years ago, guides of a study where teeth were buried in soil for up to eighteen weeks revealed that mtDNA analysis using primers for the HV1 and HV2 regions gener ated the best results in comparison to other DNA techniques thus mtDNA was a reliable method for the identification of skeletal remains (Pfeiffer et al., 1999). Developments in technology mean that analysis of mtDNA alone is now poor entropy for positive identification, and more specific methods are sedulous, much(prenominal) as STR analysis. Nevertheless, when nuclear DNA (nDNA) samples are too degraded to be processed using STR analysis, identification using mtDNA and hypervariable regions is used. This is be provoke mtDNA is present in high copy numbers and the circular structure of mtDNA makes it more resistant to degradation, but again there are limitations (Higgins et al., 2013 Coble et al., 2005). Mitochondrial DNA is passed on maternally therefore it will be the same through come on generations of effeminates of the same maternal lineage and could identify a familial match to a sister or aunt, for example. However reference samples are solely restricted to maternal se xual relations, thus its discriminatory power is far less than an STR match (Lee et al., 2010). Finally, where female relatives are absent, Y-STR analysis can be carried out to identify paternal lineage of the Y-chromosome. Mutations within the Y-chromosome are possible, and they may occur between generations as headspring as within the same bone samples, particularly if they are old skeletal bones. This must be considered when making conclusions from Y-STR analysis as it may cause problems for the forensic scientist during the identification process (Bori et al., 2011).DNA samples from skeletal remainsWith war victim skeletal remains DNA sample options are minimal, but the advantageous samples to obtain for DNA analysis are teeth and bones, which contain both nDNA and mtDNA. DNA in teeth is generally considered more protected against degradation and ravaging than bones due their unique composition and their location in the jawbone protecting them against degrading exogenous org anisms, making them useful for analysis decades after death. Additionally, they unremarkably give out a higher quality of DNA than bones, and the results of a study by Pilli and colleagues looking into the take of contamination on samples revealed that teeth have a greater refractory to contamination by exogenous DNA than bones (Higgins et al., 2013 Pilli et al., 2013 respectively). Another reason for utilising teeth is because there are a number of sources of DNA within the tooth, including dentine, and this dentine powder is rich in mtDNA (Muruganandhan et al., 2011). Nevertheless, both of these samples are used because the internal content is un believably to be contaminated with contemporary DNA compared to other samples, and the recovery of one or both of these is observed in a number of case studies identifying war victims (Lee et al., 2010 Marjanovi et al., 2007 Andelinovi et al., 2005 Ivanov et al., 1999). However, although these sources of DNA are the most likely to be p reserved over time, DNA analysis can even so be affected by the presence of PCR inhibitors (for example environmental and biological chemicals), insufficient quantity of DNA material, and high levels of DNA degradation (Marjanovi et al., 2007).DNA degradationDNA degradation and PCR inhibitors occasionally cause allele and/or locus dropout, thus not reflecting the true profile of the individual and can cause problems for forensic scientists during the analysis of genotypic DNA profiles, especially if heterozygotes are interpreted as homozygotes (Coble et al., 2005). image to environmental conditions affects DNA, and factors such as heat and humidity affect the rate of DNA degradation and the resulting quantity of DNA, with cooler temperatures delaying the degradation process. This DNA degradation caused by endogenous intracellular enzymes results in sharper DNA fragments sizes and may also cause base mutations (Higgins et al., 2013).Despite the development of sensitive DNA typing identification methods, in some cases surfeitive DNA degradation can still pose an issue, as seen in Lee et al., 2010. One sample (SR0014) had an elisionally small(a) DNA yield for both extractions, 28.720.69 pg/L and 27.216.81 pg/L, in comparison to the average yield of 217.5 pg/L and 199.1 pg/L, respectively (table 1). This DNA yield produced genotypic results at cardinal autosomal STR loci however nine of these were homozygotic and this was interpreted as allelic dropout, which in turn causes problems for profile determination and does not allow for identity inclusion or exclusion. Another example of degraded DNA amplification being below 100% was seen using AmpFISTR Yfiler amplification, which revealed only 34 out of 49 profiles, and MiniFiler which produced 40 out of 49 genetic profiles, with the other profiles being incomplete, likely due to only small amounts of degraded DNA being amplified (Bori et al., 2011).Table 1 DNA immersions (pg/L) extracted from cosh skeletal samples belonging to Korean War victims. Two DNA samples were extracted from each bone sample and quantified to try and replicate the profile for consistency and to highlight all contamination issues. (See Lee et al., 2010. Available at http//onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1556-4029.2010.01411.x/pdf. Last accessed on 24th February 2014)DNA extractionAnother issue facing forensic scientists is the quantity of DNA extracted from bones or teeth. Degraded samples offer a paucity of pathfinder DNA concentration, hence the littler PCR products (Ivanov et al., 1999). If precise procedures are not employed then DNA essential for producing a genotypic profile may be lost, and methods are required to maximise the potential from the extraction process. Recently, developments in such methods have massively impacted on the success of obtaining profiles from skeletal remains which are highly degraded. Extraction techniques employed by forensic scientists to overcome this challenge inclu de the standard organic (phenol/chloroform) method, the PrepFiler Forensic DNA Extraction kit, the Qiagen DNA extraction procedure, and a large-scale silica based extraction method, with a tokenish of two independent extractions for each sample usually taken. Lee and colleagues used the latter in 2010 alongside demineralisation to maximise the DNA yield, and the positive effect of this method was reflected in the high DNA yields observed following quantification, with all samples, except two, being greater than 50pg/L (Lee et al., 2010). Additionally, during the extraction of DNA from 109 bone samples from victims of war in mass graves in Croatia, an advanced extraction method, alongside the phenol/chloroform method, was used. The standard method yielded 20-100ng of extracted DNA across samples, whilst the advanced Promega DNA IQ dust produced 20-200ng of DNA (Andelinovi et al., 2005).ContaminationThe sensitivity of new DNA typing methodologies to minute amounts of DNA brings with it the challenge of contamination. Remains buried for a long period of time and then excavated for analysis are subject to natural cross contamination from foreign material from the surrounding environment as aerofoil as from human discussion, and this can affect the validity of the findings and interfere with DNA profiles. Thus, procedures are implemented to remove any foreign matter from the outer surface which may contaminate the probe extracting the DNA from the core of the bone or tooth. Common protocols forensic scientists use to overcome the issue of contamination on bones include sanding down the outside of the bone, washing it in mild detergent, irradiating it with UV light and storing it at -20oC until it is required for DNA extraction (Ossowski et al., 2013 Bori et al., 2011 Lee et al., 2010 Marjanovi et al., 2007 Imaizumi et al., 2002). However, in cases where excess contamination has occurred from archaeological handling and repeated excavation and reburial, it is i mpractical for forensic scientists to remove this extent of contamination, further limiting the samples which can be used for DNA. It is of dominant importance that sterile environments are used for sample analysis and that gloves are worn when handling bones to avoid contamination from humans, and gloves should be changed between the handling of bones belonging to different individuals to avoid DNA transfer. Another issue regarding contamination is the processing of ancient skeletal samples in proximity to contemporary relative reference samples, therefore, DNA from these two sample types should be extracted and amplified in separate laboratories. The majority of studies referenced in this report have not stated whether they adhered to this, with the exception being Ossowski et al., 2013 who reported that all laboratory staff wore masks, lab overalls and sterile gloves and everyone who handled the samples had previously had their DNA sample taken for reference purposes. As a resul t of the strict procedures implemented, no contamination was seen throughout the examination process, and they successfully set two individuals through DNA analysis when it was determined that they could not be identified through anthropological methods (Ossowski et al., 2013). Finally, a complete record of everyone that has handled the samples pre- and post-excavation should be kept (Pilli et al., 2013).Issues with mass grave DNA samplesA further problem forensic scientists are confronted with is the high number and poor quality of the remains discovered, particularly in mass graves, due to wars being open events with large numbers of unknown individuals involved. The hot nature of wars and conflicts and circumstances of death often renders a number of remains fragmented, meaning that prior to DNA analysis, an anthropologist must examine and match bones surmise to belong to the same individual. This should be considered during DNA analysis in case different profiles arise from b ones supposedly belonging to the same individual. Furthermore, explosives can cause bones to become incinerated, damaged and carbonised which will affect DNA extraction and amplification (Ivanov et al., 1999). This issue was presented during the recovery of approximately 10,000 skeletal remains, belonging to approximately 53 war victims in 2009, more than sixty years after World War II. In the majority of cases, it was impossible to conclude which bones belonged to one individual due to the vast number of separated, damaged and intermingled bones and the small grave area to which they were confined. Additionally, a number of victims showed obvious gunshot wounds, which further shattered the skull bones into multiple fragments (Bori et al., 2011). DNA reference samplesPrior to DNA analysis, it is paramount that circumstantial investigative research is carried out to narrow down and establish possible victims in the grave to allow for identification of their surviving relatives. This is problematic in the first instance if ante-mortem records of soldiers have not been kept. It is reasonable to assume that relatives of military personnel would be easier to identify, compared to civilians, because records are often kept of the soldiers that fought in a war, as well as when they were reported missing or pronounced dead. Reference swabs are required from these presumptive relatives to compare their DNA profiles with the profiles obtained from the unknown remains to determine if a familial match is seen.Ivanov et al., 1999 reported absent DNA samples on record during their involution in the identification of the remains recovered following the Chechen War (1994-1996). Few remains were available due to the lethal force of missiles, and this was an additional problem to the lack of DNA samples on record, which meant the absence of comparative reference samples. Accordingly, the timely process of locating potential relatives and collecting their DNA samples began. In c omparison to some cases where excavated war remains are over 60 years old (Marjanovi et al., 2007), these remains were excavated three years after the end of the war, however skeletonisation and advanced decomposition, with mummification, was still observed. Bones had been scavenged by animals, further exposing them to contamination alongside the reported careless excavation of the bodies (Ivanov et al., 1999). Mini-STRsApplying mini-STR loci to severely degraded DNA samples is effective in genotyping nDNA profiles that would otherwise yield a negative result with standard STR kits, which use STR loci of up to 250 base pairs and are likely to cause loss of signal (Andelinovi et al., 2005). In comparison, mini-STR technology can amplify loci with alleles that have fewer than cl base pairs and works by annealing primers as close as possible to the STR repeat region, creating the smallest possible amplicon (Figure 1) (Martin et al 2006 Pizzamiglio et al., 2006). When there is not enoug h intact DNA to produce full profiles using the larger CODIS loci, mini-STR loci markers are small enough to amplify alleles less than 150 bp in length (Hill et al., 2008). It is important to remember that mini-STRs are designed to profile high quantity, low quality, degraded DNA and should not be used for small amounts of DNA. Fig. 1 Mini-STR analysis uses primers which anneal as close as possible to the STR repeat region along the genome, creating a small amplicon to be amplified.Successful operation of mini-STRs was seen in 2010 when skeletal remains from the Korean War were subject to DNA analysis in the hope to identify the 55 year old remains of the missing casualties (Lee et al., 2010). Twenty-one skeletal samples were extracted from the remains of the victims of the Korean War and, following decontamination, were subjected to PCR amplification and sequencing of the mtDNA HV region, and PCR amplification of autosomal STRs and Y-STRs using common STR kits and in-house minipl ex plus systems that use smaller amplicons to optimise the genetic material from degraded samples. Results revealed that mtDNA hypervariable regions were efficiently amplified and determined in all 21 samples. A combination of AmpFISTR Identifiler alongside size-reduced amplicons in AmpFISTR MiniFiler and the in-house miniplex NC01 plus system for autosomal STR, successfully genotyped 17.2 loci out of 18, and the miniplex NC01 system showed 100% success in genotyping the four loci due to the reduced amplicon size. Additionally, twenty samples were successfully genotyped at 11 or more loci using standard STR kits, but with the in-house system, they were genotyped at 15 or more loci. The results of amplifying autosomal STRs showed the importance of mini-STRs when working with highly degraded DNA, as reduced-sized amplicons genotyped samples with a low quality of DNA in comparison to the standard kits. The same success of genotyping samples of poor quality DNA was seen using the Y-mini plex plus system in conjunction with AmpFISTR Yfiler during Y-STR genotyping (Lee et al., 2010).Profiles were also generated using mtDNA PCR amplification and miniplex NC01 analysis using the buccal samples provided by the 24 suspected relatives (Lee et al., 2010). Smaller quantities of template DNA were extracted from the relatives, as although more DNA was available, it was of a higher quality compared to the degraded unknown samples, so a smaller amount was required. If too much high quality template DNA is used, excess peaks and spurious bands would be observed, making the results unclear (Ivanov et al., 1999), and alternatively too little, or degraded DNA, may reduce the height of some alleles so the peak heights may be too low to distinguish from background noise (NFSTC Science Serving Justice, 2007). ConclusionIn conclusion, it is evident that DNA degradation affecting the quality and quantity of DNA, fragmentation of bones, numbers of bones in mass graves, contamination and poor extraction procedures are all challenges that forensic scientists face during DNA based identification of skeletal war victim remains. However, as efficient DNA extraction methods to optimise the template DNA concentration are advancing, and technology is consistently being refined to develop methods such as the mini-STR system, identification of war victims using DNA analysis, alongside anthropological measures, is become more successful.Word count 2668Page 1

Constructing Luxury for Consumers

Constructing high life for ConsumersWHAT IS LUXURY?The word high life derives from the Latin word luxus , which according to the Latin Oxford dictionary signifies low-keyed or senselessvagant living, indulgence and sumptuousness, luxuriousness, opulence (Christodoulides, Michaelidou, Li, 2008).THE TRADITIONAL, ECONOMIC VIEWThere ar two aspects to consider when defining sumptuosity, the psychological appraise and the quantify of the fruit/service itself. The psychological honor of sumptuosity comes from its function as a status figure and from a highly involved consumption experience that is potently congruent to a persons self- model. From a overlap perspective, lavishness check offs ar frequently defined in terms of their excellent quality, high transaction nurse, distinctiveness, exclusivity and craftsmanship (Fionda Moore, 2008).In his paper on International Retail Marketing, T.B. Jackson proposes the following as the core characteristics of a lavishness harv est-feast exclusivity, premium charges, image and status which agree to make them more(prenominal) desired for reasons different than function (Jackson, 2004).Dimitri Mortelmans, in his paper The theory of prodigality, says there ar three main characteristics in a narrow definition of luxury superfluous valuate, high quality and exclusivity. The fourth, derived, characteristic is high hurt.* Extra re think of Extra take to be here is loosely defined to include design, aesthetic value any innovation or attri exactlye that makes the harvest-home unique.* High quality Superior quality is an essential component of luxury products. prodigality products check been typic eithery been associated with fine craftsmanship, precision and skill.* Exclusivity Exclusivity in luxury products comes from two factors (a) the goods be make in limited quantity and distri hardlyion is strictly controllight-emitting diode. Haute couture began when royal tailors custom make garments t hat were made just for one uptaker. Till date, products belonging to the highest category of luxury be made in scant quantities. It is to a fault crucial to decide where tout ensemble these products testament be functional in order to make them rare. (b) sumptuousness goods are typic entirelyy worthd so high that they automatic ally exclude a volume of the population from their target group.In the world of luxury, rarity value sells, beca commit it is the rarity that the customer hopes to take in. Owning such(prenominal) a product makes the consumer feel let to be accessible function of a select group of people.High determine When a product or service is superior in quality has extra value and also has to be exclusive, then the monetary value automatically becomes high.(Mortelmans, 2005)Traditionally, there were four principal categories of luxury goods fashion (couture, ready-to-wear, and accessories), perfumes and cosmetics, wines and spirits and watches and jewe llery. Today, luxury has expanded to include many more categories such as luxury automobiles, hospitality (hotels, tourism, airlines) private banking and domicil furnishings among opposites. Among these, the luxury fashion goods category accounts for the spaciousst proportion of luxury goods sales (with a 42 per cent share in 2003) and also showed the strongest product category growth in 2007 (Fionda Moore, 2008).NEED FOR LUXURY MOTIVES FOR CONSUMPTIONIn their paper The specificity of luxury management move marketing upside d sustain Kapferer and Bastien express that for the outward oriented motivations, extravagance converts the raw material that is silver into a culturally sophisticated product that is favorable stratification. Where the private directed motivations are concerned, luxury should call for a very strong personal and hedonistic component otherwise it is no semipermanent luxury but simple nozzlebery. (Kapferer Bastien, 2008)According to Wiedmann, Hennig s and Siebels, luxury is a subjective and multidimensional construct. When ascertaining consumer motivations for consumption of luxury, both outward (conspicuousness, honkerbery, status) and secret (hedonism, perfectionist) directed motivations need to be taken into account. Additionally, these must be placed the situational and cultural context of consumption. (Wiedmann, Hennigs, Siebels, 2007)Wiedmann, Hennigs and Siebels deport proposed four dimensions that add value to luxury leveragings in the consumers mindFinancial Dimension of Luxury mensurate Perception The fiscal dimension captures the monetary value that consumers are giveing to put on the obtain. This will take into account aspects like expense, return on investment, resale value and discount.Functional Dimension of Luxury treasure Perception This is the core benefit or value derived from the luxury product or service purchased. This will take into account the attributes of the product such as its quality, durability, reliability, usability etc.Individual Dimension of Luxury take account Perception The psyche dimension addresses the inward oriented motivations or the personal value derived from luxury. This includes benefits like self identity, materialism and hedonism.Social Dimension of Luxury nourish Perception This dimension has been the most researched and appears to be the astronomicst contributor to the value derived from luxury. The social dimensions of luxury value include recognition or being identified as a dissolve of a particular social group, conspicuousness and prestigiousness value within a social group and a sense of power in a social context.(Wiedmann, Hennigs, Siebels, 2007)In A Review and a Conceptual Framework of Prestige-Seeking Consumer Behavior, Vigneron and Johnson eat extracted that the primary driver for the purchase of luxury is prestigiousness-seeking behaviour. The prestige benefits derived out of luxury purchases are of two types inter-perso nal (outward oriented) and personal (inward oriented). (Vigneron Johnson, 1999)Interpersonal exits The Veblen exertion perceived conscious valueVeblenian consumers attach great importance to price as an indicator of prestige. This comes from the fact that these consumers often use price as evidence to judge quality. They also tend to perceive higher quality products as granting higher prestige. The Snob effect perceived unique valueSnobs have a need to be unique and seek prestige through differentiation. The snob effect manifests itself in two forms (a) when a in the raw product/collection is launched, these consumers will deficiency to be the first to buy (innovators) (b) they will choose non to use a product once the general masses have adopted it. Snobs see higher price as an indicator of uniqueness and exclusivity. The Bandwagon effect perceived social valueThis is the reverse of the snob effect. These consumers, the followers, seek prestige through group affiliation. In the words of Vigneron and Johnson, bandwagon consumers attach less importance to price as an indicator of prestige, but will put a greater emphasis on the effect they make on others while consuming prestige bell ringersPersonal effects The hedonic effect perceived emotional valueLuxury purchases have emotional value attached to them beyond their functional utility(prenominal). These emotions could be aesthetic appeal, sensory pleasure, excitement etc. The consumer here is more concerned close her own feelings than those of others around her. The luxury product could be fantasy or self rewarding behaviour. The perfectionist effect perceived quality valueThese consumers seek superior quality as an indicator of prestige. They rely on their own judgements slightly the quality of products and services. They whitethorn see higher price as an evidence of better quality.(Vigneron Johnson, 1999) (Husic Cicic, 2009)THE ESSENCE OF LUXURYIn her book Let them eat prevention Marketing to the masses as well as the stratumes, Pamela N. Danzinger (Danziger, 2005) explains that consumers link luxury to fantasy fulfilment. They fantasize about how their life will change once they own a luxury product Luxury takes on a transcendent quality linked to the persons hopes, wishes and dreams, she says. Once we have achieved this fantasy, bought that luxury product, later on some sequence it becomes ordinary and then we wish for something else, something even more luxurious and unattainable which then becomes the immature object of fantasy. As Danzinger puts it, that which is unattainable is overwhelmingly attractive and sought later once we have attained something, it loses its mystique and charm and becomes ordinary. Thus, to consumers, luxury is ultimately the unattainable.OLD vs. NEW LUXURY (MASSTIGE)There was a while when luxury as a category was restricted in the hands of the affluent and was meant alone for the crme de la crme of society. Today, however, the scenario has changed more and more people can outright abide a small piece of the pie with the democratisation of luxury. According to a get done by IBM Business Consulting Services (2004), todays consumers are demanding lower prices on radical goods but at the equal time, they are willing to pay premiums for products that matter more to them. (Florin, Callen, Mullen, Kropp, 2007)Traditional luxury, immediately commonly known as archaic luxury, was all about conspicuous consumption and its appeal was derived from the status and prestige that came with the ownership of these products. The attributes and quality of the offering itself were of supreme importance as it was a cultural figure of high taste. In the years after the Second World War, material wealth was highly sought after. The generation that witnessed World War II and afterwards the great depression had seen immense scarcity this generation basked in the joy of material things and sought luxury as a symbol of w ealth. (Danziger, 2005)While senior luxury was about the thing itself, new luxury is about the experience. The economy, worldwide, improved continuously in the 80s and 90s leading to increasing disposable incomes, lower unemployment rates and a growing wealthy disunite in emerging countries. Simultaneously, the democratisation of luxury meant that luxury has now become more accessible to a larger population.Goods that rowlock under the new luxury category are less expensive than traditional luxury goods yet, they have some confines in terms of their price as exclusivity. They are dropable, yet they enjoy a reasonable level of perceived prestige as compared to position-range products. The prices of new luxury items are kept only slightly above those of midsection ranges. This helps in targeting a much larger segment than the traditional luxury niches.The consumers for this new luxury come from shopping centre and velocity philia classes for whom luxury purchase is a form of self reward and indulgence. Their focus is a desire for living the good life and private pleasure. As Twitchell says in his book Living It Up Our Love Affair With Luxury These new customers for luxury are younger than clients of the old luxe used to be, they are far more numerous, they make their currency far sooner, and they are far more flexible in financing and fickle in choice. They do non stay put. They now have money to burn. The competition for their attention is intense, and their consumption patterns if you havent noniced are changing life for the rest of us. (Truong, McColl, Kitchen, 2009)The term masstige was introduced by Michael Silverstein and Neil Fiske to push to a new category which aims at providing luxury to the masses. The term is derived from the words mass + prestige goods and services that occupy the space between mass and class (Silverstein Fiske, 2003). These products are priced at a premium over the convention but are not always positioned at the top of their category in price. A recent survey by the Boston Consulting Group (2004) said that the top four categories for trading up are floors, cars, appliances and dining out (Florin, Callen, Mullen, Kropp, 2007). Examples of new luxury goods are the urban BMW 1-series starting at $ 19 000, Ralph Lauren Polo shirts sold in outlets for $ 9 and Swarovski crystals with prices as low as $ 20. (Truong, McColl, Kitchen, 2009)MASSTIGE TO MASS?Critics argue that brands which enjoy the rag of masstige today, could become the mass brand tomorrow. By definition, it is contradictory to sell prestige and exclusivity in mass (because when something is owned in mass, it would no endless be prestigious). These products may be successful at first, but their enchantment for the consumer would be inversely proportional to their success.The critical success factor, then, for masstige brands would lie in maintaining the equilibrium between prestige differentiation and a reasonable price premi um. In order for a masstige product to be successful in the long term, it must have a noticeable differentiation in design and/or technology compared to the regular products in the category. This differentiation must be real and marked. Promises of improvements are not complete if they dont really exist or are imperceptible to the consumer (Smith, 2007).LONG LIVE LUXURYWith the advent of masstige, top end luxury houses like Armani and LVMH are incoming into the affordable luxury arena. Critics argue that as luxury becomes more and more affordable, the sentiment itself will die out. Here is where understanding the sign-value of luxury is important the fancy is not absolute but relative. Over the centuries, what constitutes luxury has changed, but the concept has endured. tarnishs that are at the top may not remain there, even objects that are considered to be part of luxury may change, but because of human social demand, the concept of luxury will persist.(Mortelmans, 2005)LUX URY vs. MASSTIGEMotivations for consumptionWhen defining masstige, price is not the only criteria to differentiate between the realm of luxury and that of accessible luxury. An super important difference lies in the motivations for consumption.While the reasons for consumption of luxury can be both internally as well as externally driven, consumption of masstige is in most cases externally driven. Conspicuous consumption, which formed the basis of luxury when the concept originated, now forms the basis for the masstige category. Hence, a Valentino gown does not have a logo printed on it but a Tommy Hilfiger product will always have a label, logo and some visible identification mark on it so that others can see it.Global versus localLuxury is global, it remains the selfsame(prenominal) across the world luxury brands target the elite who expect the same experience from their brands whether they are in the United States, Europe or in Asia. Although versatile brands have specific as sociations with the heri smidgee of their countries of origin, a luxury brand is not modified to suit a particular geography. It is meant for people who are global, and hence the brand perception and delivery has to be global in approach and consistent in delivery everywhere.Masstige on the other hand situationulate to be situate to an extent because the consumption of masstige is directed outwards. It has to adapt to the cultural ethos of the geography in order to remain relevant and in the process also gets absorbed into the civilization of any society.LUXURY IN THE INDIAN CONTEXTTRACING THE ROOTSLuxury in India has its roots going back to the era of the Maharajas who, for centuries, splashed their colossal wealth and lived opulently. The Mughal dynastys wealth and power was a legend but as it waned, the old Indian maharajas began to re-emerge, and new ones began to make grow. With the arrival of the British Raj, western sandwich determines began to show in the collections at the royal courts. Then began the romance with brands like LVMH, Cartier, Gerrard and Asprey.Indian courts commissioned all sorts of fine art like jewellery, woodwork, painting, enamelling, inlaid weaponry and intricate stand coverings (Gopinath, 2009). Jewellers like Cartier and Van Cleef Arpels, Louis Vuittons bags and luggage and watches by Jaeger-Le Coultre, which were the icons of luxury in Europe, were frequently commissioned by kings. At the same time, western styles of dressing were being adopted. (Forster) The Maharajas, who were patrons of music, arts, rhyme and craftsmen, began to patronise European and Indian artists and designers as well.The Victoria and Albert Museum, London, has opened an exhibition Maharaja The Splendour of Indias Royal Courts in November, which will be on viewing till January 2010. The exhibition explores the lives of the Indian royals beginning from the 18th century till the end of the British rule. The exhibition showcases 250 items a numbe r of which have been loaned from the private collections of the one time royal families of India.Some of the objects on debunk are the Maharaja of Indores Modernist furniture, a Louis Vuitton travelling case, French designed sarees, a Rolls Royce Phantom and the studding diamond necklace of Maharaja Yadarendra Singh of Patiala. The necklace which was realised in 1928, originally contained 2930 diamonds, weighed almost 1000 carats and was part of the largest single commission that Paris jeweller Cartier has ever executed.Though Western brands are now flocking to India after its new found affluents, India has clearly been consuming western luxury since way before.LUXURIFICATION OF THE INDIAN SOCIETYThe Indian luxury landscape is rapidly transforming owing to a combination of economic and social factorsRising AffluenceMerrill Lynch and Capgemini report that the number of high-net-worth individualistics in India (at least US$1 million in fiscal assets) outgrowthd by 20.5% in 2006. According to the McKinsey Global Institute, consumers earning more than 1,000,000 rupees a year will total 24 million by 2025 larger than Chinas equal segment. Their share of private consumption is projected to change magnitude from 7% to 20% in 2025.However, it is the emergence and steady rise of mass affluence of the Indian middle class coup guide with aspirational mindsets and life styles that is driving consumer demand. The scope for luxury today is larger than it has ever been in India before owing to the strength of the population that can now afford luxury goods.According to sereval reports by McKinsey Global Institue, the Indian middle class (household disposable incomes from Rs. 200,000 to 1 million a year) will increase from almost 5% to 41% of the population and will become the worlds fifth largest consumer market by 2025.(Foreign Policy)Exposure to MediaMedia explosion in the form of television, radio, internet and print has led to increased product knowledge and a wareness of brands. Fashion and lifestyle media have established a strong following as mainstream media are taking greater interest in consumer lifestyles, fashion trends and luxury brands. A milestone here was the launch of the Indian edition of Vogue magazine in 2007.Along with the platforms usable for advertising, the spending on advertising is also rising. According to ZenithOptimedia, advertising expenditures in India increased from US$1.1 billion in 1996 to US$4.7 billion in 2006 and forecasts show that this number will exceed $7 billion in 2009.Accessibility of luxury brandsA couple of decades ago, in order to purchase luxury brands such as Gucci, Cartier and Chanel, Indian consumers had to travel to Europe or the U.S. Today, the biggest names of the world like LVMH, Armani and Tommy Hilfiger are present in not only Delhi and Mumbai, but are also setting shop in the upcoming metros like Pune and Hyderabad.Inadequate retail space has also been a challenge to luxury brands op erating in India which have been, until recently, hidden in lobbies of five star hotels. The retail boom is changing this scenario. Organised retailing, which currently comprises 6% of the market, is expected to rise to 15% in the abutting two years. Retail space has increased from 22 mn sq ft in 2002 to 101 mn sq ft (almost 5 times) in 2007 and is predicted to increase by a further 200% to 300 mn sq ft by 2012. (Jindal, 2008)With the retail revolution, newer formats like luxury shopping malls are evolving. An example of these new avenues for luxury brands is the Delhi luxury-goods mall, Emporio which opened in March 2008 which houses over 70 international high-end brands.In 2006, again, AT Kearney has ranked India at the top of its Retail Development major power as the worlds most attractive market for mass international retail expansion. snitchs like Marks Spencer, McDonalds and Tommy Hilfiger have entered the market with franchisees due to market regulations which are in the process of loosening up further. (Euromonitor International, 2007)Market RegulationThe further liberalisation of the Indian economy has made the market attractive to international players despite intemperate import duties on luxury goods and foreign investors are looking to make long-term investments in the landed estate.(Atwal Khan, 2008)THE CHANGING FACE OF THE INDIAN LUXURY CONSUMERIn an call into question the Pitch magazine, Radha Chadha, author of the book The Cult of the Luxury Brand said that India currently is at an early stage of the luxury brand enculturation. Typically, it starts when a pastoral goes through a rapid economic growth and that has been happening in our country for the past few years. It puts money into peoples hands, at some point they want to demonstrate that. The third stage is what I call the show-off stage, where China is today and some of India is moving towards. Then comes the fit-in stage where we see a large scale adoption of luxe fuelled by the need to conform. The last stage is way of life where people are habituated to luxe products they become confident and pick out buyers, like in emerged markets. (Chadha, 2008)The luxury market in India has traditionally been segmented according to two distinct customer groups the affluents and the non-affluents. With the pace of economic development, rise of the middle class and the transition towards a consumer society, the profile of the luxury consumer has also evolved. Clustering luxury consumers into segments based simply on socio-economic classifications is erroneous. Todays luxury consumer is much more versatile and hence the old segmentation and classifications need to be reassessed. The regular classifications of customers based on income or SEC are not sufficient today to calibre clearly who are the consumers who are actually consuming luxury (Pant, 2009).India has always had a small elite segment that has been shopping abroad and buying western brands for ages. This el ite class consists of the descendants of the royal families, nawabs and small rulers and long standing industrial families like the Birlas, Tatas, Godrej, Bajaj, Mahindras, some tracing their roots back to pre independence days. (Chadha Husband, 2007). This was the select, privilege segment that was exposed to and could consume luxury.In todays scenario, a typical BPO operator in Mumbai or Delhi is spending a substantial proportion of their monthly pay on international brands of clothes, accessories and cosmetics. These are consumers are not affluent in the traditional sense of originating from wealthy family backgrounds, but are ambitious and successful in their chosen professions. Personal performance based on merit has got them to where they are today. Todays luxury shopper could be a broker, an entrepreneur, IT specialist or a student (Atwal Khan, 2008). They purchase luxury not simply to show off, but as a self-reward. As Atwal and Khan say in their paper Luxury marketing in India because Im worth it, this generation consumes brands, goes shopping and purchases luxury as they firmly believe in the sentiment because Im worth it.The Indian AffluentsIn her article in the Brand Reporters special issue on luxury marketing, Vatsala Pant says that it is to try and understand these versatile consumers that one such measure, the Nielsen UMAR (Upper and Middle Rich) survey has redefined affluence using lifestyle and ownership of consumer durables factors (Pant, 2009). On the basis of these factors, Nielsen has estimated that there are 2.6 million affluent households across 35 cities (metros and upcoming metros) of India.Affluent Households in India (Source Nielsen UMAR survey) LANGUAGELuxury is no longer reserved for the English-speaking elite. The survey reveals that 51% of these affluents have been educated in languages other than English and dont speak English as a primary language at home. The primary language spoken, then, becomes the p relatered languag e for media consumption. FAMILY STRUCTURENinety percent of these households live in thermonuclear families or nuclear families with elders living with them. The average size of the family is 4 members with the chief wage earner typically over 35 years of age. DURABLESWhile all the households have the grassroots durables like TV, refrigerator, washing machines and mobile phones, the Rich segment is seen to have more expensive double-door refrigerators, front loading washing machines and microwaves as well. 20% of the affluent households have two or more TV sets. MEDIA CONSUMPTIONWhile the most popular medium is TV (watched in 98% of the HH), the beside most popular is print where 70% HH read English dailies. However, only 10% read English telephone line dailies. Popularity of watching cinema outside the home is more (67%) than radio listenership (54% of HH). 55% of the HH browse the internet while only 38% read magazines.(Pant, 2009)Changing Trends of the Affluent Indian Consumer Indian consumers are value conscious and highly value driven.Not just products, but the delivery and experience are becoming increasingly important.With the advent of international luxury brands with a bang into the country, consumers want world-class brands, and expect world-class quality, service and experience. They expect the latest designs and most modern technologies available.As the purchasing power has gone up, so have aspirations.The concept of wealth to be enjoyed preferably than just display and badge value has emerged. Indulgence and self-rewarding behaviour are on the rise alternatively than simply the need to show-off.(Raman, 2007)NEW LUXURY FOR INDIAIn their paper Luxury marketing in India because Im worth it Glyn Atwal and Shaziya Khan say that the establishment of different levels of luxury ranging from ultra luxury to affordable luxury is a reflection of luxurys increasing mass appeal in India.The concept of masstige or new luxury is extremely relevant in the In dian context for two reasons firstly, the market for masstige is huge is India owing to rising disposable incomes and a burgeoning middle class. Secondly, Indians are extremely value conscious and new luxury would, for many, be the first opportunity to experience luxury. This, then, could be the first step for a large population to move on to luxury.Rising incomes and the recent retail boom in the country coupled with increasing awareness has sparked off consumption of new luxury brands in India. At the same time, the arrival of international brands and players on the scene has provided accessibility to global resources and efficient supply chains. The Indian society is moving towards NUF (Nuclear Urban Family) where each individual has their own tastes and preferences (Marketing Funda Masstige, 2007). The consumer is becoming more demanding in terms of value, quality and service.A Euromonitor report on India states that for the burgeoning middle class, the spending area is shoppin g for brand names. Consumerism is a significant aspect of the new, younger middle class which gives a lot of importance to lifestyle and branded goods. (Euromonitor International, 2007)A look into the Indian consumers luxury needsIn their qualitative research of the Indian consumers, Glyn Atwal and Shaziya Khan discovered that the Indian consumer associates luxury with perceptions of not just quality and performance but with comfort, beauty, pleasure and style. The product is no longer the sole criteria for choice, the service and experience of shopping are crucial to the decision making process.When societies experience fast economic growth, the phenomenon of luxury commonly gains popularity because the acquisition of luxury is a symbol of prestige and signifies how fast you have climbed up the ladder of social mobility. A similar phenomenon is being seen in India but the motivations to acquire luxury brands go beyond displaying social status. Consumers are moving on from an outw ard expression of luxury to an inward directed emotional experience. Luxury brands are helping people define identities and express values.(Atwal Khan, 2008)CHAPTER 2 INDIAN ADVERTISING- AESTHETICS CONTENTADVERTISING INDIAN CULTUREWilliam Mazzarellas ethnographic study of globalizing consumerism in the context of Indian advertising talks about how advertising is produced in metropolitan India and transformations in the Indian public culture along with the rise of mass consumerism. As Mazzarella puts it As an aesthetic interface of situation colonial capitalism, the everyday practice of advertising constantly calls into question the conceptual alignments that ground wrinkle discourse local and global, culture and capital, particular and universal, content and form (Mazzarella, 2003)Goods possess meaning of two kinds 1. given and propagated by manufacturers and 2.that have been created by the users themselves because of the way they use them, symbolic meaning etc.Material culture is not simply about objects but about the intimate connection between the object and its users. The value of any material is co-constructed by the manufacturer/seller, the user and the society/social norms/perceptions/evaluations.While necessity is culturally associated with lower incomes and to an extent poverty, luxury stands at the other extreme being associated with wealth as well as taste. Comfort comes somewhere in between. Again, what we define as necessities or luxury comes from our cultural framework. In India, the cultural framework is defined largely by the middle class for whom, say, not just food, shelter and clothing but hygiene too may be necessity.(Nayar, 2009)The Indian culture has deeply embedded in it values of saving and economic prudence. This is why trade promotion deals like 25% extra on packs, free gifts etc. work so well in the market. This economic prudence is not just monetary, it also has a strong becharm of moral economy i.e. economy that is good for th e family as a whole. A married woman feels she has been a good mother and wife if she has saved money on her daily grocery shopping. The other fundamental values are those of safety and privacy of the family and to be aesthically and culturally presentable. (Nayar, 2009)With the rise of globalization and proliferation of MNCs into the country post 1991, ironically, a new movement began that of the New Swadeshi. In the increasingly global scenario, Indians were searching for what is their own. The term swadeshi re-entered the vocabulary of India during 1996-97. Over the last decade, the swadeshi and the global have merged, alter and evolved from the transnational media of the 1990s which were supposed to have an Indian soul and international feel. The formula here was to show stereotypical exotic imagery of the Indian tradition and place it in an international context.Constructing Luxury for ConsumersConstructing Luxury for ConsumersWHAT IS LUXURY?The word luxury derives from the La tin word luxus , which according to the Latin Oxford dictionary signifies well-off or extravagant living, indulgence and sumptuousness, luxuriousness, opulence (Christodoulides, Michaelidou, Li, 2008).THE TRADITIONAL, ECONOMIC VIEWThere are two aspects to consider when defining luxury, the psychological value and the value of the product/service itself. The psychological value of luxury comes from its function as a status symbol and from a highly involved consumption experience that is potently congruent to a persons self-concept. From a product perspective, luxury brands are frequently defined in terms of their excellent quality, high transaction value, distinctiveness, exclusivity and craftsmanship (Fionda Moore, 2008).In his paper on International Retail Marketing, T.B. Jackson proposes the following as the core characteristics of a luxury product exclusivity, premium prices, image and status which mix to make them more desirable for reasons other than function (Jackson, 20 04).Dimitri Mortelmans, in his paper The concept of luxury, says there are three main characteristics in a narrow definition of luxury extra value, high quality and exclusivity. The fourth, derived, characteristic is high price.* Extra value Extra value here is loosely defined to include design, aesthetic value any innovation or attribute that makes the product unique.* High quality Superior quality is an essential component of luxury products. Luxury products have been typically been associated with fine craftsmanship, precision and skill.* Exclusivity Exclusivity in luxury products comes from two factors (a) the goods are made in limited quantity and distribution is strictly controlled. Haute couture began when royal tailors custom made garments that were made only for one user. Till date, products belonging to the highest category of luxury are made in scant quantities. It is also crucial to decide where all these products will be available in order to make them rare. (b) Luxu ry goods are typically priced so high that they automatically exclude a bulk of the population from their target group.In the world of luxury, rarity value sells, because it is the rarity that the customer wants to own. Owning such a product makes the consumer feel privileged to be part of a select group of people.High price When a product or service is superior in quality has extra value and also has to be exclusive, then the price automatically becomes high.(Mortelmans, 2005)Traditionally, there were four principal categories of luxury goods fashion (couture, ready-to-wear, and accessories), perfumes and cosmetics, wines and spirits and watches and jewellery. Today, luxury has expanded to include many more categories such as luxury automobiles, hospitality (hotels, tourism, airlines) private banking and home furnishings among others. Among these, the luxury fashion goods category accounts for the largest proportion of luxury goods sales (with a 42 per cent share in 2003) and also showed the strongest product category growth in 2007 (Fionda Moore, 2008).NEED FOR LUXURY MOTIVES FOR CONSUMPTIONIn their paper The specificity of luxury management turn marketing upside down Kapferer and Bastien express that for the outward oriented motivations, Luxury converts the raw material that is money into a culturally sophisticated product that is social stratification. Where the inward directed motivations are concerned, luxury should have a very strong personal and hedonistic component otherwise it is no longer luxury but simple snobbery. (Kapferer Bastien, 2008)According to Wiedmann, Hennigs and Siebels, luxury is a subjective and multidimensional construct. When studying consumer motivations for consumption of luxury, both outward (conspicuousness, snobbery, status) and inward (hedonism, perfectionist) directed motivations need to be taken into account. Additionally, these must be placed the situational and cultural context of consumption. (Wiedmann, Hennigs, Sieb els, 2007)Wiedmann, Hennigs and Siebels have proposed four dimensions that add value to luxury purchases in the consumers mindFinancial Dimension of Luxury Value Perception The financial dimension captures the monetary value that consumers are willing to put on the purchase. This will take into account aspects like price, return on investment, resale value and discount.Functional Dimension of Luxury Value Perception This is the core benefit or utility derived from the luxury product or service purchased. This will take into account the attributes of the product such as its quality, durability, reliability, usability etc.Individual Dimension of Luxury Value Perception The individual dimension addresses the inward oriented motivations or the personal value derived from luxury. This includes benefits like self identity, materialism and hedonism.Social Dimension of Luxury Value Perception This dimension has been the most researched and appears to be the largest contributor to the v alue derived from luxury. The social dimensions of luxury value include recognition or being identified as a part of a particular social group, conspicuousness and prestige value within a social group and a sense of power in a social context.(Wiedmann, Hennigs, Siebels, 2007)In A Review and a Conceptual Framework of Prestige-Seeking Consumer Behavior, Vigneron and Johnson have suggested that the primary driver for the purchase of luxury is prestige-seeking behaviour. The prestige benefits derived out of luxury purchases are of two types inter-personal (outward oriented) and personal (inward oriented). (Vigneron Johnson, 1999)Interpersonal effects The Veblen effect perceived conscious valueVeblenian consumers attach greater importance to price as an indicator of prestige. This comes from the fact that these consumers often use price as evidence to judge quality. They also tend to perceive higher quality products as granting higher prestige. The Snob effect perceived unique valueS nobs have a need to be unique and seek prestige through differentiation. The snob effect manifests itself in two forms (a) when a new product/collection is launched, these consumers will want to be the first to buy (innovators) (b) they will choose not to use a product once the general masses have adopted it. Snobs see higher price as an indicator of uniqueness and exclusivity. The Bandwagon effect perceived social valueThis is the reverse of the snob effect. These consumers, the followers, seek prestige through group affiliation. In the words of Vigneron and Johnson, bandwagon consumers attach less importance to price as an indicator of prestige, but will put a greater emphasis on the effect they make on others while consuming prestige brandsPersonal effects The hedonic effect perceived emotional valueLuxury purchases have emotional value attached to them beyond their functional utility. These emotions could be aesthetic appeal, sensory pleasure, excitement etc. The consumer here is more concerned about her own feelings than those of others around her. The luxury product could be fantasy or self rewarding behaviour. The perfectionist effect perceived quality valueThese consumers seek superior quality as an indicator of prestige. They rely on their own judgements about the quality of products and services. They may see higher price as an evidence of better quality.(Vigneron Johnson, 1999) (Husic Cicic, 2009)THE ESSENCE OF LUXURYIn her book Let them eat patty Marketing to the masses as well as the classes, Pamela N. Danzinger (Danziger, 2005) explains that consumers link luxury to fantasy fulfilment. They fantasize about how their life will change once they own a luxury product Luxury takes on a transcendent quality linked to the persons hopes, wishes and dreams, she says. Once we have achieved this fantasy, bought that luxury product, after some time it becomes ordinary and then we wish for something else, something even more luxurious and unattainable which then becomes the new object of fantasy. As Danzinger puts it, that which is unattainable is overwhelmingly attractive and desirable once we have attained something, it loses its mystique and charm and becomes ordinary. Thus, to consumers, luxury is ultimately the unattainable.OLD vs. NEW LUXURY (MASSTIGE)There was a time when luxury as a category was restricted in the hands of the affluent and was meant only for the crme de la crme of society. Today, however, the scenario has changed more and more people can now afford a small piece of the pie with the democratisation of luxury. According to a study done by IBM Business Consulting Services (2004), todays consumers are demanding lower prices on basic goods but at the same time, they are willing to pay premiums for products that matter more to them. (Florin, Callen, Mullen, Kropp, 2007)Traditional luxury, now commonly known as old luxury, was all about conspicuous consumption and its appeal was derived from the status and pres tige that came with the ownership of these products. The attributes and quality of the offering itself were of supreme importance as it was a cultural symbol of high taste. In the years after the Second World War, material wealth was highly sought after. The generation that witnessed World War II and afterward the great depression had seen immense scarcity this generation basked in the joy of material things and sought luxury as a symbol of wealth. (Danziger, 2005)While old luxury was about the thing itself, new luxury is about the experience. The economy, worldwide, improved continuously in the 80s and 90s leading to increasing disposable incomes, lower unemployment rates and a growing wealthy class in emerging countries. Simultaneously, the democratisation of luxury meant that luxury has now become more accessible to a larger population.Goods that travel by under the new luxury category are less expensive than traditional luxury goods yet, they have some confines in terms of the ir price as exclusivity. They are affordable, yet they enjoy a reasonable level of perceived prestige as compared to middle-range products. The prices of new luxury items are kept only slightly above those of middle ranges. This helps in targeting a much larger segment than the traditional luxury niches.The consumers for this new luxury come from middle and velocity middle classes for whom luxury purchase is a form of self reward and indulgence. Their focus is a desire for living the good life and private pleasure. As Twitchell says in his book Living It Up Our Love Affair With Luxury These new customers for luxury are younger than clients of the old luxe used to be, they are far more numerous, they make their money far sooner, and they are far more flexible in financing and fickle in choice. They do not stay put. They now have money to burn. The competition for their attention is intense, and their consumption patterns if you havent noticed are changing life for the rest of us. (Truong, McColl, Kitchen, 2009)The term masstige was introduced by Michael Silverstein and Neil Fiske to refer to a new category which aims at providing luxury to the masses. The term is derived from the words mass + prestige goods and services that occupy the space between mass and class (Silverstein Fiske, 2003). These products are priced at a premium over the convention but are not always positioned at the top of their category in price. A recent survey by the Boston Consulting Group (2004) said that the top four categories for trading up are homes, cars, appliances and dining out (Florin, Callen, Mullen, Kropp, 2007). Examples of new luxury goods are the urban BMW 1-series starting at $ 19 000, Ralph Lauren Polo shirts sold in outlets for $ 9 and Swarovski crystals with prices as low as $ 20. (Truong, McColl, Kitchen, 2009)MASSTIGE TO MASS?Critics argue that brands which enjoy the tag of masstige today, could become the mass brand tomorrow. By definition, it is contradicto ry to sell prestige and exclusivity in mass (because when something is owned in mass, it would no longer be prestigious). These products may be successful at first, but their enchantment for the consumer would be inversely proportional to their success.The critical success factor, then, for masstige brands would lie in maintaining the equilibrium between prestige differentiation and a reasonable price premium. In order for a masstige product to be successful in the long term, it must have a noticeable differentiation in design and/or technology compared to the regular products in the category. This differentiation must be real and marked. Promises of improvements are not comely if they dont really exist or are imperceptible to the consumer (Smith, 2007).LONG LIVE LUXURYWith the advent of masstige, top end luxury houses like Armani and LVMH are entree into the affordable luxury arena. Critics argue that as luxury becomes more and more affordable, the concept itself will die out. He re is where understanding the sign-value of luxury is important the concept is not absolute but relative. Over the centuries, what constitutes luxury has changed, but the concept has endured. Brands that are at the top may not remain there, even objects that are considered to be part of luxury may change, but because of human social needs, the concept of luxury will persist.(Mortelmans, 2005)LUXURY vs. MASSTIGEMotivations for consumptionWhen defining masstige, price is not the only criteria to differentiate between the realm of luxury and that of accessible luxury. An extremely important difference lies in the motivations for consumption.While the reasons for consumption of luxury can be both internally as well as externally driven, consumption of masstige is in most cases externally driven. Conspicuous consumption, which formed the basis of luxury when the concept originated, now forms the basis for the masstige category. Hence, a Valentino gown does not have a logo printed on it but a Tommy Hilfiger product will always have a label, logo and some visible identification mark on it so that others can see it.Global versus localLuxury is global, it remains the same across the world luxury brands target the elite who expect the same experience from their brands whether they are in the United States, Europe or in Asia. Although assorted brands have specific associations with the heritage of their countries of origin, a luxury brand is not modified to suit a particular geography. It is meant for people who are global, and hence the brand perception and delivery has to be global in approach and consistent in delivery everywhere.Masstige on the other hand needs to be locate to an extent because the consumption of masstige is directed outwards. It has to adapt to the cultural ethos of the geography in order to remain relevant and in the process also gets absorbed into the culture of any society.LUXURY IN THE INDIAN CONTEXTTRACING THE ROOTSLuxury in India has its r oots going back to the era of the Maharajas who, for centuries, splashed their long wealth and lived opulently. The Mughal dynastys wealth and power was a legend but as it waned, the old Indian maharajas began to re-emerge, and new ones began to rise. With the arrival of the British Raj, western influences began to show in the collections at the royal courts. Then began the romance with brands like LVMH, Cartier, Gerrard and Asprey.Indian courts commissioned all sorts of fine art like jewellery, woodwork, painting, enamelling, inlaid weaponry and intricate offend coverings (Gopinath, 2009). Jewellers like Cartier and Van Cleef Arpels, Louis Vuittons bags and luggage and watches by Jaeger-Le Coultre, which were the icons of luxury in Europe, were frequently commissioned by kings. At the same time, western styles of dressing were being adopted. (Forster) The Maharajas, who were patrons of music, arts, verse line and craftsmen, began to patronise European and Indian artists and des igners as well.The Victoria and Albert Museum, London, has opened an exhibition Maharaja The Splendour of Indias Royal Courts in November, which will be on display till January 2010. The exhibition explores the lives of the Indian royals beginning from the 18th century till the end of the British rule. The exhibition showcases 250 items a number of which have been loaned from the private collections of the one time royal families of India.Some of the objects on display are the Maharaja of Indores Modernist furniture, a Louis Vuitton travelling case, French designed sarees, a Rolls Royce Phantom and the studding diamond necklace of Maharaja Yadarendra Singh of Patiala. The necklace which was completed in 1928, originally contained 2930 diamonds, weighed almost 1000 carats and was part of the largest single commission that Paris jeweller Cartier has ever executed.Though Western brands are now flocking to India after its new found affluents, India has clearly been consuming western l uxury since way before.LUXURIFICATION OF THE INDIAN SOCIETYThe Indian luxury landscape is rapidly transforming owing to a combination of economic and social factorsRising AffluenceMerrill Lynch and Capgemini report that the number of high-net-worth individuals in India (at least US$1 million in financial assets) increased by 20.5% in 2006. According to the McKinsey Global Institute, consumers earning more than 1,000,000 rupees a year will total 24 million by 2025 larger than Chinas comparable segment. Their share of private consumption is projected to increase from 7% to 20% in 2025.However, it is the emergence and steady rise of mass affluence of the Indian middle class coupled with aspirational mindsets and lifestyles that is driving consumer demand. The scope for luxury today is larger than it has ever been in India before owing to the strength of the population that can now afford luxury goods.According to sereval reports by McKinsey Global Institue, the Indian middle class (ho usehold disposable incomes from Rs. 200,000 to 1 million a year) will increase from nearly 5% to 41% of the population and will become the worlds fifth largest consumer market by 2025.(Foreign Policy)Exposure to MediaMedia explosion in the form of television, radio, internet and print has led to increased product knowledge and awareness of brands. Fashion and lifestyle media have established a strong following as mainstream media are taking greater interest in consumer lifestyles, fashion trends and luxury brands. A milestone here was the launch of the Indian edition of Vogue magazine in 2007.Along with the platforms available for advertising, the spending on advertising is also rising. According to ZenithOptimedia, advertising expenditures in India increased from US$1.1 billion in 1996 to US$4.7 billion in 2006 and forecasts suggest that this number will exceed $7 billion in 2009.Accessibility of luxury brandsA couple of decades ago, in order to purchase luxury brands such as Gucc i, Cartier and Chanel, Indian consumers had to travel to Europe or the U.S. Today, the biggest names of the world like LVMH, Armani and Tommy Hilfiger are present in not only Delhi and Mumbai, but are also setting shop in the upcoming metros like Pune and Hyderabad.Inadequate retail space has also been a challenge to luxury brands operating in India which have been, until recently, hidden in lobbies of five star hotels. The retail boom is changing this scenario. Organised retailing, which currently comprises 6% of the market, is expected to rise to 15% in the next two years. Retail space has increased from 22 mn sq ft in 2002 to 101 mn sq ft (almost 5 times) in 2007 and is predicted to increase by a further 200% to 300 mn sq ft by 2012. (Jindal, 2008)With the retail revolution, newer formats like luxury shopping malls are evolving. An example of these new avenues for luxury brands is the Delhi luxury-goods mall, Emporio which opened in March 2008 which houses over 70 international h igh-end brands.In 2006, again, AT Kearney has ranked India at the top of its Retail Development advocate as the worlds most attractive market for mass international retail expansion. Brands like Marks Spencer, McDonalds and Tommy Hilfiger have entered the market with franchisees due to market regulations which are in the process of loosening up further. (Euromonitor International, 2007)Market RegulationThe further liberalisation of the Indian economy has made the market attractive to international players despite minacious import duties on luxury goods and foreign investors are looking to make long-term investments in the country.(Atwal Khan, 2008)THE CHANGING FACE OF THE INDIAN LUXURY CONSUMERIn an hearing the Pitch magazine, Radha Chadha, author of the book The Cult of the Luxury Brand said that India currently is at an early stage of the luxury brand culture. Typically, it starts when a country goes through a rapid economic growth and that has been happening in our country f or the past few years. It puts money into peoples hands, at some point they want to demonstrate that. The third stage is what I call the show-off stage, where China is today and some of India is moving towards. Then comes the fit-in stage where we see a large scale adoption of luxe fuelled by the need to conform. The last stage is way of life where people are habituated to luxe products they become confident and shrewd buyers, like in emerged markets. (Chadha, 2008)The luxury market in India has traditionally been segmented according to two distinct customer groups the affluents and the non-affluents. With the pace of economic development, rise of the middle class and the transition towards a consumer society, the profile of the luxury consumer has also evolved. Clustering luxury consumers into segments based simply on socio-economic classifications is erroneous. Todays luxury consumer is much more diverse and hence the old segmentation and classifications need to be reassessed. T he regular classifications of customers based on income or SEC are not sufficient today to figure clearly who are the consumers who are actually consuming luxury (Pant, 2009).India has always had a small elite segment that has been shopping abroad and buying western brands for ages. This elite class consists of the descendants of the royal families, nawabs and small rulers and long standing industrial families like the Birlas, Tatas, Godrej, Bajaj, Mahindras, some tracing their roots back to pre independence days. (Chadha Husband, 2007). This was the select, privileged segment that was exposed to and could consume luxury.In todays scenario, a typical BPO operator in Mumbai or Delhi is spending a substantial proportion of their monthly payment on international brands of clothes, accessories and cosmetics. These are consumers are not affluent in the traditional sense of originating from wealthy family backgrounds, but are ambitious and successful in their chosen professions. Perso nal performance based on merit has got them to where they are today. Todays luxury shopper could be a broker, an entrepreneur, IT specialist or a student (Atwal Khan, 2008). They purchase luxury not simply to show off, but as a self-reward. As Atwal and Khan say in their paper Luxury marketing in India because Im worth it, this generation consumes brands, goes shopping and purchases luxury as they firmly believe in the sentiment because Im worth it.The Indian AffluentsIn her article in the Brand Reporters special issue on luxury marketing, Vatsala Pant says that it is to try and understand these diverse consumers that one such measure, the Nielsen UMAR (Upper and Middle Rich) survey has redefined affluence using lifestyle and ownership of consumer durables factors (Pant, 2009). On the basis of these factors, Nielsen has estimated that there are 2.6 million affluent households across 35 cities (metros and upcoming metros) of India.Affluent Households in India (Source Nielsen UMAR su rvey) LANGUAGELuxury is no longer reserved for the English-speaking elite. The survey reveals that 51% of these affluents have been educated in languages other than English and dont speak English as a primary language at home. The primary language spoken, then, becomes the preferred language for media consumption. FAMILY STRUCTURENinety percent of these households live in nuclear families or nuclear families with elders living with them. The average size of the family is 4 members with the chief wage earner typically over 35 years of age. DURABLESWhile all the households have the basic durables like TV, refrigerator, washing machines and mobile phones, the Rich segment is seen to have more expensive double-door refrigerators, front loading washing machines and microwaves as well. 20% of the affluent households have two or more TV sets. MEDIA CONSUMPTIONWhile the most popular medium is TV (watched in 98% of the HH), the next most popular is print where 70% HH read English dailies. Ho wever, only 10% read English business dailies. Popularity of watching cinema outside the home is more (67%) than radio listenership (54% of HH). 55% of the HH browse the internet while only 38% read magazines.(Pant, 2009)Changing Trends of the Affluent Indian ConsumerIndian consumers are value conscious and highly value driven.Not just products, but the delivery and experience are becoming increasingly important.With the advent of international luxury brands with a bang into the country, consumers want world-class brands, and expect world-class quality, service and experience. They expect the latest designs and most modern technologies available.As the purchasing power has gone up, so have aspirations.The concept of wealth to be enjoyed rather than just display and badge value has emerged. Indulgence and self-rewarding behaviour are on the rise rather than simply the need to show-off.(Raman, 2007)NEW LUXURY FOR INDIAIn their paper Luxury marketing in India because Im worth it Glyn A twal and Shaziya Khan say that the establishment of different levels of luxury ranging from ultra luxury to affordable luxury is a reflection of luxurys increasing mass appeal in India.The concept of masstige or new luxury is extremely relevant in the Indian context for two reasons firstly, the market for masstige is huge is India owing to rising disposable incomes and a burgeoning middle class. Secondly, Indians are extremely value conscious and new luxury would, for many, be the first opportunity to experience luxury. This, then, could be the first step for a large population to move on to luxury.Rising incomes and the recent retail boom in the country coupled with increasing awareness has sparked off consumption of new luxury brands in India. At the same time, the arrival of international brands and players on the scene has provided accessibility to global resources and efficient supply chains. The Indian society is moving towards NUF (Nuclear Urban Family) where each individual has their own tastes and preferences (Marketing Funda Masstige, 2007). The consumer is becoming more demanding in terms of value, quality and service.A Euromonitor report on India states that for the burgeoning middle class, the spending area is shopping for brand names. Consumerism is a significant aspect of the new, younger middle class which gives a lot of importance to lifestyle and branded goods. (Euromonitor International, 2007)A look into the Indian consumers luxury needsIn their qualitative research of the Indian consumers, Glyn Atwal and Shaziya Khan discovered that the Indian consumer associates luxury with perceptions of not just quality and performance but with comfort, beauty, pleasure and style. The product is no longer the sole criteria for choice, the service and experience of shopping are crucial to the decision making process.When societies experience fast economic growth, the phenomenon of luxury usually gains popularity because the acquisition of luxury is a sym bol of prestige and signifies how fast you have climbed up the ladder of social mobility. A similar phenomenon is being seen in India but the motivations to acquire luxury brands go beyond displaying social status. Consumers are moving on from an outward expression of luxury to an inward directed emotional experience. Luxury brands are helping people define identities and express values.(Atwal Khan, 2008)CHAPTER 2 INDIAN ADVERTISING- AESTHETICS CONTENTADVERTISING INDIAN CULTUREWilliam Mazzarellas ethnographic study of globalizing consumerism in the context of Indian advertising talks about how advertising is produced in metropolitan India and transformations in the Indian public culture along with the rise of mass consumerism. As Mazzarella puts it As an aesthetic interface of post colonial capitalism, the everyday practice of advertising constantly calls into question the conceptual alignments that ground business discourse local and global, culture and capital, particular and u niversal, content and form (Mazzarella, 2003)Goods possess meaning of two kinds 1. given and propagated by manufacturers and 2.that have been created by the users themselves because of the way they use them, symbolic meaning etc.Material culture is not simply about objects but about the intimate connection between the object and its users. The value of any material is co-constructed by the manufacturer/seller, the user and the society/social norms/perceptions/evaluations.While necessity is culturally associated with lower incomes and to an extent poverty, luxury stands at the other extreme being associated with wealth as well as taste. Comfort comes somewhere in between. Again, what we define as necessities or luxury comes from our cultural framework. In India, the cultural framework is defined largely by the middle class for whom, say, not just food, shelter and clothing but hygiene too may be necessity.(Nayar, 2009)The Indian culture has deeply embedded in it values of saving and economic prudence. This is why trade promotion deals like 25% extra on packs, free gifts etc. work so well in the market. This economic prudence is not just monetary, it also has a strong influence of moral economy i.e. economy that is good for the family as a whole. A married woman feels she has been a good mother and wife if she has saved money on her daily grocery shopping. The other fundamental values are those of safety and privacy of the family and to be aesthically and culturally presentable. (Nayar, 2009)With the rise of globalization and proliferation of MNCs into the country post 1991, ironically, a new movement began that of the New Swadeshi. In the increasingly global scenario, Indians were searching for what is their own. The term swadeshi re-entered the vocabulary of India during 1996-97. Over the last decade, the swadeshi and the global have merged, suitable and evolved from the transnational media of the 1990s which were supposed to have an Indian soul and internati onal feel. The formula here was to show stereotypical exotic imagery of the Indian tradition and place it in an international context.

superman for president Essay -- essays research papers

When we think of the office of President, what kind of person comes to mind? Does he ready to be wise and make good decisions? Does he have to look good in a suit? Maybe he should just be a person that you trust in to keep The United States of America running smooth. Well if that is what you think of when you think of the President, my candidate is all of that plus lots more. window glass would be the perfect commander in chief of these United States.The first of my candidates multiple qualities is respect for the bulk. Past presidentsdidnt have that characteristic. He realizes that the people come first, that is the whole purpose of becoming the president. Serving the citizen would be his number one priority. When he was working for a newspaper company, he used to secretly go out and save peoples lives, putting his own life in danger. Rescuing old ladies from burning buildings, helping the police bring sight some of the toughest villains, he even will get a cat stuck in a tree to come down.The second of my clients long amount of outstanding qualities is his ability to make quick and precise decisions. We need a president that will not crack under the pressure of qualification an important choice for this country. The September 11th incident would be the perfect example. There is a better way to handle this than just bombing everywhere. If Superman were president the planes would have been stopped in their tracks and placed safely on the ground. The economy is another area t...

Stereotyping and Profiling Based Upon Religion Essay -- Islam, Religio

Living in America we deal with a lot of diversity, especially those in the criminal justice degree syllabus where situations caused by diversity can lead to a problem. Stereotyping is one of the biggest problems that we deal with, particularly in law enforcement. There have been many allegations of police officers charge of going after individuals and accusing them of a crime based on the sole fact of what their religious beliefs might be. This has been going on for a ache time however in recent years, it has gotten worse. The main job of police officers is to uphold the law, not to break it. Although stereotyping is not against the law, police officers have taken an expletive to protect all human beings, regardless of their race or religion and stereotyping based on religion should not take place. Just because an individual is of a certain race dose not give us the right to stereotype them as a bad human being.Fred Edmund Jandt (2003), the word stereotype was number 1 used to show the judgments mention ab aside individuals on the origin of their racial background. Today the expression is more commonly used to pass on to events made on the basis of a groups association. Psychologists have attempted to give explanations of stereotyping as errors that our brains make in the judgment of other people that are related to those mistakes our brains make in the view of illustration illusions. When information is blurred, the brain frequently reaches the incorrect conclusion. (p.77)Fred Edmund Jandt (2003), is the practice of racial profiling stereotyping? Profiling refers to a law enforcement carry out of scrutinizing of certain persons based on characteristics thought to classify an option of illegal activities. Example, a person traveling a... ...inar strips away cultural stereotypes. Pittsburgh Tribunei-Review. Retrieved October 30, 2008, from http//www.pittsburghlive.com////region/_529578.html Jandt, F. E. (2003, July 21). Barries to intercultural communica tion. In An introduction to intercultural communication (4th ed., pp. 77,79). Sage Publications, Inc. Retrieved October 28, 2008, from http//books.google.com/books?id=LyHDS--WSywC&pg=PA79&lpg=PA79&dq=a+person+traveling+alone+is+more+likely+to+engage+in+terrorist+activity&source=bl&ots=Kmn1NAlTjX&sig=7i-h54dh_2kROXAHmjgO0HJqogw&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=2&ct=resultPPA71,M1Morgenstern, H. (n.d.). Suicide terror - fire fighters response. In Suicide terror - fire fighters response Fact sheet. Retrieved October 28, 2008, from http//www.nationalhomelandsecurityknowledgebase.com/Research/International_Articles/Suicide_Terror_and_FireFighters.html